Group iva functionalized particles and methods of use thereof

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are functionalized Group IVA particles, methods of preparing the Group IVA particles, and methods of using the Group IVA particles. The Group IVA particles may be passivated with at least one layer of material covering at least a portion of the particle. The layer of material may be a covalently bonded non-dielectric layer of material. The Group IVA particles may be used in various technologies, including lithium ion batteries and photovoltaic cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This is a non-provisional of U.S. Patent Application No. 61/691,641, filed on Aug. 21, 2012, and U.S. Patent Application No. 61/773,270, filed on Mar. 6, 2013, the contents of all of which are incorporated fully herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates generally to functionalized Group IVA particles, and more particularly, to Group IVA particles passivated by a covalently bonded non-dielectric layer of hydrocarbons, methods of preparing the Group IVA particles, and methods of using the Group IVA particles. The present disclosure also relates to the incorporation of porous covalent frameworks with covalently bound Group IVA particles, and methods of using the porous covalent frameworks in battery technologies.

BACKGROUND

A battery is an electrochemical energy storage device. Batteries can be categorized as either primary (non-rechargeable) or secondary (rechargeable). In either case, a fully charged battery delivers electrical power as it undergoes an oxidation/reduction process and electrons are allowed to flow between the negative and positive polls of the battery.

Lithium ion batteries are secondary batteries; which means that they can be recharged by driving current in the opposite direction and reducing lithium ions to Li⁰ at the anode. A generalized schematic representation of a lithium ion battery is shown in FIG. 1. The direction of movement of ions and electrons are shown to represent “charging”. The discharge cycle would show ions moving in the opposite direction. Lithium ions migrating into the anode are met by electrons moving toward the anode through the closed circuit, thus reducing the Li⁺ to Li⁰ (lithium metal). Li⁰ is actually much larger in diameter than Li⁺ because of the electron it acquired occupies its 2S orbital. Consequently lithium metal occupies a significant amount of space. Conventional carbon anodes accommodate reduced lithium between the layers of graphite. Graphite can be thought of as 2-D arrays of 6-membered rings of carbon forming “sheets” that slide easily on one another. Fully charged, a graphite anode is able to accommodate the volume of lithium without imposing special demands beyond the inherent space that already exists between the sheets of graphite sheets.

There are no such special demands on the cathode as Li⁺ requires very little space (like adding sand to a bucket of gravel). The metal oxides and/or phosphates comprising the cathode stay in place. But only a finite number of Li⁺ ions (usually one or two) can pair with each cluster of metal oxides. Thus much greater space requirement of the cathode limits the specific charge capacity (charge per gram or charge per cubic millimeter). From the standpoint of size and molecular mass alone, lithium is the ideal element to use in batteries that must be made compact and light. In addition, lithium has the highest redox potential difference of any element.

The average cathode composition generally has lower charge capacity and therefore requires more size (and weight) when matched with the most common anode composite, graphite. As a consequence, a majority of research has focused on developing improved cathodes.

Some researchers have sought to develop alternative anodes for lithium ion batteries using silicon based materials. Silicon (Si) is known to have a far superior capacity to attract lithium than carbon used in traditional batteries [372 milliamp hours per gram, (mAh/g) versus 4,212 mAh/g for Si]. However, no commercial batteries have been successfully introduced using Si because no suitable structure has been found that prevents mechanical breakdown of the Si composites after only a few recharge cycles. Specifically, the limited structural form of silicon, coupled with the strong attraction that lithium has for silicon, results in mechanical failure due to volumetric expansion after a few charge/recharge cycles.

Accordingly, there is a need for new materials and methods that improve upon existing battery technology. In particular, there is a need for materials that provide a suitable porous framework to accommodate the spatial requirements of lithium accumulation at the anode of lithium ion batteries, and also possess good charge carrier mobility.

Also needed are nanoparticle materials that can be efficiently and economically produced from abundant and readily available raw materials. While particle size control has been demonstrated using such methodologies as plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), hot wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD) and ion beam deposition (IBD), commercial production using these methods usually involve in situ film manufacturing. Group IVA nanoparticle powders are only available commercially in very limited range of specifications and only with dielectric passivation. The products are expensive because their production requires large capital costs for production equipment and high energy costs in production.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, disclosed is a functionalized Group IVA particle. The Group IVA particle may be passivated by a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.

The non-dielectric layer may be derived from a compound selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes. The non-dielectric layer may be derived from a compound selected from the group consisting toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary alkene, a primary alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene, and terephthalaldehyde. The non-dielectric layer may possess functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is 25 microns in size or less, 1 micron in size or less, 0.1 micron in size or less, or 0.05 micron in size or less.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework. The porous covalent framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 2-dimensional framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 3-dimensional framework.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle comprises silicon, germanium, tin, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an n-type dopant or a p-type dopant. The n-type dopant may comprise nitrogen, phosphorous, arsenic, or any combination thereof. The p-type dopant may comprise boron, aluminum, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an impurity selected from the group consisting of aluminum, iron, calcium, and titanium.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be derived from metallurgical grade silicon. The Group IVA particle may be derived from a p-type silicon wafer, wherein the p-type silicon wafer may have a measured resistivity of 0.01-100 ohm/cm². The Group IVA particle may be derived from an n-type silicon wafer. The Group IVA particle may be derived from bulk MG Group IVA ingot material.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be part of an anode in a lithium ion battery, part of a photovoltaic (PV) film, part of a biosensor, part of an energy storage device, part of a thermoelectric film, or part of a semiconductor device.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be prepared by a process comprising the steps of: treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be prepared by a process comprising the steps of: treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particle may be a particle passivated with a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particle may be stable to oxidation in air at room temperature. The compound for passivating may be selected from the group consisting of an organic compound, a fullerene, and an organometallic compound.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.

In another aspect, disclosed are methods of preparing functionalized Group IVA particles.

In certain embodiments, a method of functionalizing a Group IVA particle comprises treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, a method of functionalizing a Group IVA particle comprises treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a stable benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle. The passivated Group IVA particles may be stable to oxidation in air at room temperature. The passivated Group IVA particles may be passivated with a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.

In certain embodiments, the compound used for passivation may be selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes. In certain embodiments, the compound used for passivation may be selected from the group consisting toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary alkene, a primary alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene, and terephthalaldehyde.

In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particle possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is 25 microns in size or less, 1 micron in size or less, 0.1 micron in size or less, or 0.05 micron in size or less.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle is covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework. The porous covalent framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 2-dimensional framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 3-dimensional framework.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle comprises silicon, germanium, tin, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an n-type dopant or a p-type dopant. The n-type dopant may comprise nitrogen, phosphorous, arsenic, or any combination thereof. The p-type dopant may comprise boron, aluminum, or any combination thereof. The Group IVA particle may comprise an impurity selected from the group consisting of aluminum, iron, calcium, and titanium.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be part of an anode in a lithium ion battery, part of a photovoltaic (PV) film, part of a biosensor, part of an energy storage device, part of a thermoelectric film, or part of a semiconductor device.

In certain embodiments, the protic acid may be selected from the group consisting of nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and hydrobromic acid.

In certain embodiments, the synthetic steps to prepare the passivated Group IVA particles are conducted at about room temperature.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be derived from metallurgical grade silicon. The Group IVA particle may be derived from a p-type silicon wafer, wherein the p-type silicon wafer may have a measured resistivity of 0.01-100 ohm/cm². The Group IVA particle may be derived from an n-type silicon wafer. The Group IVA particle may be derived from bulk MG Group IVA ingot material.

In certain embodiments, prior to treating the Group IVA particle with protic acid, the method comprises crushing, grinding, and milling an ingot or wafer material comprising a Group IVA element to provide submicron Group IVA particles ready for passivation.

In certain embodiments, the methods of preparing the Group IVA particles are a non-clean room processes.

In another aspect, disclosed is a lithium ion battery comprising: a positive electrode; a negative electrode comprising a conductive, porous covalent framework comprising at least one submicron Group IVA particle covalently bonded to the framework; a lithium ion permeable separator between the positive electrode and the negative electrode; and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions. The porous covalent framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The porous covalent framework may be a 2-dimensional framework or a 3-dimensional framework. In certain embodiments, the lithium ion battery includes a solvent that is a mixture of at least ethylene and propylene carbonates.

The compositions, methods and processes are further described herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a generalized schematic representation of a lithium ion battery.

FIG. 2 depicts Group IVA nanoparticles functionalized with 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyl-anthracene groups.

FIG. 3 depicts a porous framework composite including functionalized Group IVA particles.

FIG. 4 depicts a lithium ion battery using a silicon-covalent porous framework anode.

FIG. 5 depicts a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic cell including a semiconductor film incorporating functionalized Group IVA particles.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are micron and submicron sized, passivated Group IVA particles; methods of preparing the Group IVA particles; and methods of using the Group IVA particles. The Group IVA particles, the methods of preparing said particles, and methods of using said particles, as disclosed herein, provide several advantages over current technologies and practices.

As one advantage, the Group IVA particles may be efficiently and economically produced from readily available starting materials. For example, the Group IVA particles can be made and functionalized without the use of heat or other high energy processes, thereby lowering manufacturing costs. The process for manufacturing nanosized Group IVA particles by methods disclosed herein are far more economical than manufacturing of Group IVA nanoparticles from “atom up” methods, such as plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), hot wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD), and ion beam deposition (IBD). Furthermore, the availability of feedstock for manufacturing the Group IVA submicron particles is plentiful and economical, as there are many sources of silicon and germanium derived from metallurgical grade ingots to various refined stage ingots. For silicon, the bulk material ranges from amorphous to polycrystalline and crystalline. Purities range from about 95% pure to 99.9999% pure. Silicon and germanium are available with dopants added that render the semiconductor properties as n-type (B, or Al) or p-type (N, P, or As). Of the refined crystalline and polycrystalline bulk materials, wafers from ingots with specific resistivity are available for use in semiconductor microelectronics manufacturing and solar photovoltaic cell manufacturing. Kerf from wafer manufacturing and scrap or defective wafers are also available at recycled material prices.

As another advantage, the ability to handle and store the Group IVA particles disclosed herein without rigorous exclusion of air and moisture is a distinct advantage, particularly in device manufacturing. Unlike most semiconductor devices where semiconducting films are manufactured in situ with strict controls to exclude oxygen and moisture, the Group IVA submicron particles disclosed herein may be manufactured separately from the device and can be stored in dry powdered form for up to several months without decomposition.

Thus, the methods disclosed herein allow functionalization of Group IVA materials for any application on any substrate/carrier that would otherwise require heat, sintering, environmentally controlled clean rooms and environmentally unfriendly etching, and substrates that would stand up to the heat processing, etc. Existing methods can be used only in applications or on substrates that will support the status quo heat and clean room based method to bond materials together and to the substrate or carrier.

As another advantage, the Group IVA particles and methods disclosed herein may be applied in technologies in such a way as to overcome existing problems in the art. The capability of forming formal covalent bonds to surrounding media from the passivated submicron particles through low-energy reactions allows the formation of materials that have optimized charge mobility from the particle to the surrounding media. As such, the Group IVA particles have applications in lithium ion battery and photovoltaic technologies.

For example, the Group IVA particles may be incorporated into a porous covalent framework to provide a composite for use in anodes of lithium ion batteries, functioning as high capacity anodes having high charge mobility. The composite can provide optimum porosity, allowing ion flow in all directions, thereby reducing internal resistance that can lead to the generation of heat. The composite can accommodate space requirements for lithium at the anode, and resist mechanical breakdown as compared to known silicon based composites. The composite can also provide conduits for electrical charge mobility to and from sites where lithium ions (Li⁺) become reduced to lithium metal (Li⁰), and the reverse process in which Li⁰ atoms become oxidized to Li⁺. The facile electron mobility may be beneficial also in suppressing the formation of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) films believed to form from solvent decomposition as a consequence of localized electrical potentials. The composite, which conducts charge efficiently, can provide increased recharge rate, decreasing the time required to recharge the battery.

1. Definition of Terms

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. In case of conflict, the present document, including definitions, will control. Preferred methods and materials are described below, although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in practice or testing of the present invention. All publications, patent applications, patents and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. The materials, methods, and examples disclosed herein are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

As used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “and” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The terms “comprise(s),” “include(s),” “having,” “has,” “can,” “contain(s),” and variants thereof, as used herein, are intended to be open-ended transitional phrases, terms, or words that do not preclude the possibility of additional acts or structures. The present disclosure also contemplates other embodiments “comprising,” “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of,” the embodiments or elements presented herein, whether explicitly set forth or not.

2. Group IVA Particles

Disclosed herein are Group IVA particles passivated with at least one layer of material covering at least a portion of the particle. The particles include at least one Group IVA element (e.g., silicon, germanium, or tin). The layer of material may be a covalently bonded non-dielectric layer of material, such as a hydrocarbon.

The Group IVA particles may be micron or submicron sized particles. The particles may have a diameter of less than 25 microns, less than 20 microns, less than 15 microns, less 10 microns, less than 5 microns, less than 1 micron, less than 0.5 micron, less than 0.1 micron, or less than 0.05 micron. The particles may have a diameter ranging from about 0.05 micron to about 25 microns, or from about 0.1 micron to about 1 micron. The particles may have a diameter of 0.01 micron, 0.02 micron, 0.03 micron, 0.04 micron, 0.05 micron, 0.06 micron, 0.07 micron, 0.08 micron, 0.09 micron, 0.10 micron, 0.2 micron, 0.3 micron, 0.4 micron, 0.5 micron, 0.6 micron, 0.7 micron, 0.8 micron, 0.9 micron, or 1 micron. The particles produced by the processes disclosed herein may produce particles of uniform diameter, or may produce particles of variable diameter.

a. Group IVA Elements and Materials

The Group IVA particles may include elemental silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) or tin (Sn), in their elemental form, or available in a wide range of purities. Impurities may be naturally occurring impurities that occur in metallurgical grade (MG) bulk materials, or may be intentionally added dopants to render the semiconducting properties of the Group IVA materials as n-type or p-type. For silicon, the metallurgical grade bulk material may range from amorphous to polycrystalline and crystalline; and purities may range from about 95% pure to 99.9999% pure. Dopants that render Group IVA materials as p-type semiconductors are typically from Group IIIA elements, such as boron (B) or aluminum (Al). Dopants that render Group IVA semiconductors as n-type are typically from Group VA elements, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) or arsenic (As). Naturally occurring impurities in metallurgical grade Si typically include metallic elements in the form of metal oxides, sulfides and silicides. The major metallic elements include Al, iron (Fe), calcium (Ca) and titanium (Ti), but other elements can be observed in trace quantities.

The Group IVA particles may be derived from a variety of feedstocks. In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particles may be derived from wafers, such as silicon wafers. Of the refined crystalline and polycrystalline bulk materials, wafers from ingots with specific resistivity are available from semiconductor microelectronics manufacturing and solar photovoltaic cell manufacturing. Kerf from wafer manufacturing and scrap, or defective wafers are also available at recycled material prices.

b. Materials for Passivation

The Group IVA particles may be passivated with a variety of compounds. The compound may be an organic compound, such as a hydrocarbon based organic compound. In certain embodiments, the compound may be selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes. In certain embodiments, the compound may be selected from the group consisting of toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary C₁-C₆ alkene, a primary C₁-C₆ alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetraanthracene.

Hydrocarbons chosen for passivation may bear other functional groups that upon activation will form covalent bonds with other reagents. This property provides a basis for covalently linking the Group IVA particles as structural units in building reticular covalent networks. Hydrocarbons chosen for passivation can vary in size and polarity. Both size and polarity can be exploited for targeted particle size selectivity by solubility limits in particular solvents. Partitioning of particle size distributions based on solubility limits is one tactic for narrowing of particle size distributions in commercial scale processes.

While the possibilities of structure and function for Group IVA submicron particles made by the methods disclosed herein are unlimited, the following embodiments are given as examples to demonstrate the range of flexibility for building functional particles through low energy reactions conducted at or near room temperature.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with toluene.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with benzene. A benzene passivated Group IVA particle may serve as a stable intermediate for further modification. Benzene is one of few organic hydrocarbons that will bond reversibly to silicon surfaces. Thus, benzene passivated Group IVA material is a convenient stable intermediate for introducing other functional hydrocarbons to the particle surface. This is one of few forms of Group IVA material in which thermodynamics plays an important role in the surface chemistry as opposed to be being dominated by kinetics.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with an aromatic hydrocarbon, such as a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. Aromatic hydrocarbons provide for charge mobility across the passivated particle surface. Hydrocarbons with extended pi systems through which charge can travel may be preferred in certain embodiments for non-dielectric passivation of Group IVA material surfaces.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a carbon nanotube, a fullerene, or a metallofullerene. Such materials may be applied to the particle surfaces either directly to H₂ passivated surfaces, or by replacement of benzene passivated surfaces. Fullerenes have a very high capacity to disperse electric charge and may impart properties useful in microelectronic applications.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with styrene. Such materials may be applied directly to H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces. Styrene is known to bond primarily through the pendant vinyl group, leaving the aromatic ring unchanged and free to interact with surrounding solvents, electrolytes, or to be modified by aromatic ring substitution reactions. Functional groups on the phenyl ring may be used as a reactive precursor for forming covalent bonds to a surrounding framework.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with cyclooctatetraene (COT). Such a material may be applied to H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces, with alternating carbon atoms formally bonded to the particle surface while the other four carbon atoms not bonded directly to the particle surface are connected by two parallel double bonds, providing a diene site capable of Diels-Alder type reactions.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a norbornadiene reagent. Such materials may be applied to H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces with attachment of one or both double bonds. If both double bonds interact with the particle surface, a strained structure comparable to quadracyclane may result. Norbornadiene/quadracyclane is known to be an energy storage couple that needs a sensitizer (acetophenone) to capture photons. In certain embodiments, silicon or germanium may also function as a sensitizer.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a normal primary alkene or alkyne having 6-12 carbon chain lengths. The alkene or alkyne can be used as the reactive medium for the purpose of attaching hydrocarbons to the surface of the Group IVA particles to increase particle size or to change solubility properties of the particles. The longer alkane chain lengths may garner more intermolecular attraction to solvents, resulting in increased solubility of the particles. Changing the size of Group IVA particles by attaching hydrocarbons may alter photoluminescence properties.

In certain embodiments, the Group IVA particle may be passivated with a biologically active reactive media. Such materials can be used to replace H₂ passivated surfaces to synthesize biological markers that respond to photons. Fatty acids may bond to active surfaces through the carboxylate group or through one of the chain's unsaturated bonds Amino acids are water soluble and may bond either though the primary amine or through the acid end, depending on pH. Similarly, peptides, proteins, enzymes all have particular biological functions that may be linked to Group IVA nanoparticle markers.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA nanoparticles may reside in communication with a porous framework capable of transmitting charge in communication with liquid crystal media having charge conduction properties. Such particles may be used for the purpose of capturing and selectively sequestering chemical components of a complex mixture, as a method of measuring their relative concentrations in the mixture. The method of measurement may be by capture of photons by the semiconductor nanoparticles and measurement of electrical impulses generated from photovoltaic properties of said nanoparticles or by sensing photoluminescence as a result of reemitted photons from the media that has been influenced by the captured chemical components.

In certain embodiments, bifunctional organic chains may be used to replace H₂ or benzene passivated surfaces. For example, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy-anthracene has two hydroxyl groups at each end of a fused chain of three aromatic rings. This hydrocarbon chain may be used to build a covalent framework and may be used to link Group IVA nanoparticles to the framework. The chain length structure and functional groups at the ends of the chains can vary. Some functional groups used for cross-linking between building units can include, but are not limited to: aldehydes, carboxylates, esters, borates, amines, amides, vinyl, halides, and any other cross-linking functional group used in polymer chemistry. Frameworks based on covalently linked porphyrin may have extraordinarily high charge (hole conducting) mobility, greater than amorphous silicon and higher than any other known hydrocarbon composite. Si nanoparticles linked covalently to porous covalent frameworks may serve as high capacity electrode composites for lithium-ion batteries. FIG. 2 depicts Group IVA nanoparticles functionalized with 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy-anthracene groups.

In certain embodiments, aromatic passivating hydrocarbons may be used to replace H₂ bonded to reactive surfaces of the Group IVA particles. The aromatic hydrocarbons may promote high charge mobility and can interact with other planar pi systems in the media surrounding the particle. This embodiment may be applied to functioning solar photovoltaic (PV) cells. The aromatic hydrocarbons that form the passivating layer on the particle may or may not possess functional groups that form covalent bonds to the particle or the surrounding media. For example, toluene bonds to active surfaces on silicon, effectively passivating the surface and permitting electrical charge to move from photon generated electron hole pairs in p-type crystalline silicon particles. Sustained electrical diode properties have been measured in films made with high K-dielectric solvents and both p-type and n-type silicon particles passivated with toluene.

c. Method of Passivation

The Group IVA particles disclosed herein can be functionalized with at least one layer of material over at least a portion of the particle. The layer of material may be covalently bonded to the Group IVA particle. The layer of material may be a non-dielectric layer of material, such as a hydrocarbon. The passivated Group IVA particle may be stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.

The methods of passivation disclosed herein may be conducted at or near room temperature. The methods allow functionalization of Group IVA materials for any application on any substrate/carrier that would otherwise require heat, sintering, environmentally controlled clean rooms and environmentally unfriendly etching, and substrates that would stand up to the heat processing, etc.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA particles may be prepared by providing a first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle; treating the first particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound (other than hydrogen) to provide a passivated Group IVA particle.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA particles may be prepared by providing a first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle; treating the first particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound (other than hydrogen) to provide a passivated Group IVA particle.

The first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle may be derived from a variety of feedstocks. In certain embodiments, the first particles may be derived from wafers, such as silicon wafers. Of the refined crystalline and polycrystalline bulk materials, wafers from ingots with specific resistivity are available from semiconductor microelectronics manufacturing and solar photovoltaic cell manufacturing. Kerf from wafer manufacturing and scrap, or defective wafers are available at recycled material prices.

The first Group IVA micron or submicron sized particle may be prepared from feedstocks by any suitable process. In certain embodiments, the first Group IVA particle may be prepared from bulk Group IVA materials by comminution processes known in the art. Particle size ranges obtainable from comminution of bulk Group IVA materials has improved with the development of new milling technologies in recent years. Using milling techniques such as high energy ball milling (HEBM), fluidized bed bead mills, and steam jet milling, nanoparticle size ranges may be obtained. Bulk materials are available commercially in a wide range of specifications with narrow ranges of measured electrical resistivity and known dopant concentrations, and can be selected for milling. Other embodiments can be created to produce micron- to nanoparticles using n-type Group IVA wafers, or wafers with higher or lower resistivity or bulk MG Group IVA ingot material following a similar procedure as above.

Any protic acid may be used to provide the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle. In certain embodiments, the protic acid is a strong protic acid. In certain embodiments, the protic acid is selected from the group consisting of nitric acid (HNO₃), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF), and hydrobromic acid (HBr). The protic acid may function to passivate the first Group IVA particle by leaching metal element impurities from the particles, which forms soluble metal chloride salts and gaseous hydrogen (H₂), such that the remaining surface (e.g., Si surface) from which impurities have been leached become weakly passivated with hydrogen.

Hydrogen can then be replaced from the Group IVA particles with a selected compound. In certain embodiments, the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particles may be treated with certain functional organic materials (e.g., hydrocarbons) that form strong covalent bonds with Group IVA element. Examples of functional groups that form bonds with Group IVA surfaces (e.g., Si surfaces) include, but are not limited to, alkenes, alkynes, phenyl (or any aromatic cyclic organic compounds), alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, aldehydes, and other functional groups able to share electrons through pi bonds or lone pair electrons.

In certain embodiments, following the above sequence of treatments, silicon particles made from impure grades of bulk Si may have irregular shapes, but include a monolayer of hydrocarbons on Si surfaces that have been freshly exposed by leaching gettered impurities or by fracturing during a milling process. Hydrocarbons can be chosen to replace hydrogen bonding to the Si surface that allow a high degree of charge mobility, thus rendering the Si surface effectively non-dielectric. Further reaction of the Si surface with oxygen leading to SiO₂ formation may be inhibited by the presence of the hydrocarbon monolayer. Even if areas of the nanoparticle surface are not completely free of dielectric oxides, charge mobility from the nanoparticle to a surrounding framework, or vice versa, may still occur through the non-dielectric passivated areas on the surfaces.

In certain embodiments, passivated Group IVA particles may be prepared by providing a Group IVA powder; reducing the Group IVA powder to submicron particles; within a closed container treating at least a portion of the submicron particles with an aqueous liquid comprising a protic acid; agitating the container for a time sufficient to passivate the submicron particles therein with hydrogen; separating at least a portion of the aqueous liquid from the hydrogen passivated submicron particles; and within a closed container treating the hydrogen passivated submicron particles with a compound (other than hydrogen) to provide passivated Group IVA particles.

The Group IVA powder may be provided by using a mortar and pestle to crush a material comprising Group IVA elements (e.g., silicon wafers), and passing the crushed material through a sieve. The powder may be reduced to submicron particles using a ball mill. The treatment of the submicron particles with the protic acid may be conducted in the presence of an agitation device, such as a stir bar or ceramic balls. The agitation of the container to passivate the particles with hydrogen may be accomplished with a roller mill (e.g., at 60 rpm for two hours). The container may be a screw top container. After agitating the container for hydrogen passivation (e.g., for two hours), the container may be allowed to stand motionless (e.g., for another two hours). The container may then be opened to release pressure and at least a portion of the liquid phase removed. Optionally, additional protic acid may be added and the hydrogen passivation step repeated. After hydrogen passivation, the container may be opened to release pressure and the liquid portion may be separated from the solids (e.g., by decantation). In the same or different container and under agitation, the hydrogen passivated submicron particles may be treated with the compound for passivation for a sufficient time (e.g., four to six hours) to affect passivation. The liquid phase may thereafter be removed from the solids (e.g., by syringe). The solid passivated submicron particles may be dried by evaporation, optionally at reduced pressure at room temperature.

3. Applications

The Group IVA particles may be used in a variety of applications. The Group IVA particles may be used where spectral shifting due to quantum confinement is desirable, and particle size distributions under 15 nanometers (nm) are required. The Group IVA particles may be used where particle size compatibility with a porous framework is desired, or it is desired to have material properties that resist amalgamation with other metals such as lithium (Li). The Group IVA particles may be used to provide viable commercial products using specific particle size distribution ranges.

a. Battery Applications

The functionalized Group IVA particles may be useful in battery applications, particularly in anodes of lithium ion batteries. In certain embodiments, the passivated Group IVA particles may be covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework. The framework including the Group IVA particles may be particularly useful in lithium ion battery applications. The framework may be a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework. The framework may be a 2-dimensional framework or a 3-dimensional framework. A complete framework composite may comprise multiple sheets of frameworks stacked and aligned on top of one another. The sheets may be aligned and stacked in close proximity with one another to provide electron mobility in the perpendicular direction to the plane of the sheets. FIG. 3 depicts one porous framework composite according to the present invention that may serve as an anode in a lithium ion battery application. FIG. 4 depicts a lithium ion battery using a silicon-covalent porous framework anode according to the present invention.

Submicron silicon particles bonded to a porous covalent framework with high charge mobility may provide a high capacity anode in lithium-ion batteries. Silicon is known to form amalgams with lithium having the capacity to attract a greater mass of lithium than any other known element. Anodes with silicon have the capacity to attract more than 10 times the mass of lithium than conventional carbon-based anode composites. Consequently, material scientists and battery manufacturers have attempted to form silicon bearing composites that function as the anode in lithium-ion batteries. The primary hurdle facing these efforts relates the charge/recharge cycle stability of the anode composites. This is because no structural form of bulk silicon (or germanium) can accommodate the spatial requirement imposed by the accumulated lithium and the composites degrade mechanically after the first charge cycle.

Because lithium-ion batteries are usually developed as secondary batteries (rechargeable) they must undergo many charge/recharge cycles (1000 or more) without significant loss of charge capacity. Thus, if silicon is used in lithium-ion battery anodes, the structure of the composite must be capable of accommodating large amounts of lithium (approximately 4 times the volume with a full Li charge compared to the composite with no Li accumulation). Si particles must also be small enough to resist amalgamation by lithium. Si nanowires and nanoporous silicon and quantum dots have all demonstrated the ability to attract lithium without causing mechanical changes to the silicon particles.

A framework that supports silicon particles may allow Li⁺ ions to migrate. The porous framework may accommodate solvents and electrolytes and allow free migration of ions ideally in all directions. The frameworks can be designed with optimum porosity. The reticular pattern with which the structural units are assembled may result in perfectly even porosity throughout the framework, allowing ion flow in all directions with no “hot spots” or areas of restricted flow that contribute to a battery's internal resistance leading to the generation of heat.

Porous electrode composites may allow charge to be conducted from sites where reduction and oxidation occurs to the current collector. The conduction path is bidirectional since the direction of charge and electrolyte flow are reversed when the battery is being recharged as opposed to when the battery is providing electrical power. Frameworks using planar porphyrin structural units have the ability to accommodate electrical charge in its extended pi system and the alignment of the structural units by the reticular assembly provides an efficient path for electrons as demonstrated by charge mobility measurements. While some electrode designs require the inclusion of conductive carbon in the composite, the electrode with conductive frameworks may not.

b. Photovoltaic Applications

The functionalized Group IVA particles may be useful in photovoltaic applications. The Group IVA particles may be used to provide a semiconductor film comprised of submicron Group IVA particles dispersed and in communication with an electrically-conductive fluid matrix or liquid crystal. The film may be prepared by making a semiconductor particle suspension, depositing the semiconductor particle suspension on a substrate, and curing the semiconductor particle suspension at a temperature of 200° C. or less to form the semiconductor film. The semiconductor particles may be comprised of elements from the group consisting of B, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, N, P, As, Sb, O, S, Te, Se, F, Cl, Br, I, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pd, Pt, Ag, Cu, Au, Zn, Cd, lanthanides, and actinides. The semiconductor particles may be p-type or n-type. The method may be performed completely at room temperature.

The semiconductor films that may be applied in sequence on a substrate, rigid or flexible, may be integral parts of a functioning semiconductor device having been assembled monolithically with no annealing during any part of the manufacturing process. The semiconductor films may be applied as inks printed on the substrate by ink-jet or any known printing process capable of creating uniform films on a substrate surface. Conductive circuitry may also be printed in the same manner as the semiconductor films, all becoming integral parts of the complete electronic device.

For example, in the case where the semiconductor device is a photovoltaic cell, a p-type semiconductor film (abbreviated as “p-film”) may be applied by ink jetto the substrate with a conductive surface. Upon sufficient curing of the p-film, an n-type semiconductor film (n-film) may be applied directly on the partially cured p-film. After the first two films are sufficiently cured, conductive circuitry may be applied on top of the n-film. The conductive circuitry can be printed through a mask or by such print jet capable of making narrow, wire-like conduction pathways. The conductive circuitry on top may minimize the area that shades incident light on the surface of the semiconductor films. The conductive circuitry on top of the n-film may be connected to the negative terminal (anode), while the conductive surface under the p-film and on the substrate may be connected to the positive terminal (cathode). The cell may then be hermetically sealed with a sunlight-transparent covering, gaskets and cement. A schematic diagram of such a cell is depicted in FIG. 5.

Also disclosed herein is a method of making a photovoltaic cell at room temperature from semiconductor films composed of Group IVA submicron particles. In certain embodiments, photovoltaic activity may be observed in cells made by the methods in this invention using crystalline silicon films having a mean particle size distribution above 1 micron. Yet in other embodiments, higher photovoltaic efficiency may be achieved from films made with nanoparticle size distributions such that quantum confinement becomes an important factor in the absorption of photons and photon-electron transitions. Distinct advantages are gained with the use of nanoparticle films in solar PV collectors, one being the efficiency and breadth of the solar radiation spectrum that can be absorbed and converted to electrical energy using crystalline silicon. For example, solar cells made from bulk silicon wafers are typically 30 thousandths (˜0.7 mm) thick, while some silicon nanoparticle thin films that have equivalent photon absorption capacity need only be less than 100 nm.

Bulk crystalline silicon is inherently an indirect band gap semiconductor, which explains why photon absorption efficiency is low even though the natural band gap for silicon is nearly perfectly centered in the solar spectrum. For absorption and conversion of a photon to an electron hole pair to occur in indirect band gap semiconductors (p-type), the conversion must be accompanied with the production of a phonon (a smaller packet of thermal energy). Not only is some energy lost in each conversion of photon to electron, but these conversions do not readily occur because it is a forbidden transition. Still, forbidden transitions can and do occur, but they happen much less frequently than in direct band-gap semiconductors. Similarly, florescence (resulting in the annihilation of an electron or electron hole pair with the emission of a photon) also is forbidden in indirect band-gap semiconductors and allowed in direct band-gap semiconductors. Consequently, silicon is a poor luminescence semiconductor, but it is capable of preserving energy in the form of an electron hole pair for long enough to allow the charge to migrate to the p-n junction where it meets an electron from the conduction band of the n-semiconductor layer.

Under ideal conditions the maximum theoretical photovoltaic efficiency of bulk crystalline silicon is just over 30%, while in practice the best photovoltaic efficiency in crystalline silicon wafer solar cells is 22-24%. Still, crystalline silicon wafer technology is most commonly used in commercial solar PV panels because their efficiency is far better than amorphous silicon films and the PV efficiency fade over time is very low compared to other solar PV technologies. PV efficiency for silicon nanoparticle films has been measured in the laboratory as high as 40-50% with some expectations that even higher efficiencies are attainable. However, these devices have not yet been commercialized presumably because the cost of commercialization is too high to compete with existing technologies.

While others have used expensive heat processing methods to fuse various elements of the semiconductor materials to form functioning semiconductor devices, disclosed herein is a method of making these devices function through the formation of formal covalent bonds and pi overlapping interactions in liquid crystal and covalent framework structures through low temperature reactions. The overlying benefit from this approach is to lower the cost of manufacturing superior performing devices. This is especially important for solar PV manufacturing where the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) must decline for solar power to approach parity with other sources of electrical energy.

Also disclosed herein is a method of applying passivated Group IVA semiconductor particles suspended with an electrically conductive fluid. The semiconductor particles and the constituents of the liquid crystal or electrically conducting fluid or framework may be suspended in a high-K dielectric solvent to form a liquid ink with the appropriate viscosity suitable for the method of application. For jet printing, viscosities in the range of 10 centipoise (cp) to 30 cp may be suitable, while for gravure printing may require viscosities over 100 cp. High K solvents are used to promote the dispersion of nanoparticles and prevent particle agglomeration. Films may require a period of curing to allow the alignment and or self assembly of the fluid matrix or structural units of the framework and to establish electrical communication with the semiconductor particles. The curing process may involve complete or partial evaporation of one or more components of solvent used in making the inks.

Solvents used in making submicron semiconductor inks may include, but are not limited to, N-methylpyrrolidinone (NMP), dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), tetrahydrofuran (THF), nitromethane, hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA), dimethylforamide (DMF), and sulfalone. Many organic-based compounds are available that form columnar discotic liquid crystals. Examples of these include a class of compounds derived from triphenylene-base compounds that align with each other in stacked columns by hydrogen bonding. Similarly, other symmetric and asymmetric polyaromatic hydrocarbons with planar pi systems and ring substituents that participate in their alignment into stack columns may be used for a discotic liquid crystal matrix. Porphyrin based compounds may be used to form stacked arrays that can be classified with liquid crystals, or with appropriate functional groups may form covalent organic frameworks that allow high charge mobility in their frameworks. Some combination of one or more of the above solvents and organic-based liquid crystal or conductive framework structural units may be used for the semiconductor film matrixes.

c. Other Applications

Other applications for functionalized Group IVA particles include biosensors, thermoelectric films, and other semiconductor devices.

4. Examples

The foregoing may be better understood by reference to the following examples, which are presented for purposes of illustration and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

Example 1 Toluene Passivated Silicon Particles

In one example, p-type silicon wafers with measured resistivity of 2-4 ohm/cm² were crushed, then ground with mortar and pestle, then passed through a #60 mesh sieve. The powder was further reduced to submicron particles with a ball mill. In 40 gram batches, the submicron silicon powder was added to a 250 mL polypropylene container with 100 mL of muriatic acid and 4-8 ceramic balls (12 mm dia.). The screw-top lid was closed and the container was turned on a rolling mill at 60 rpm for two hours. Pressure buildup in the container caused the container to bulge. In some instances where larger quantities or lower grades of silicon were treated, the container was subject to bursting due to the buildup of H₂ gas. After two hours of agitation on the roller mill, the bottle was allowed to stand for another two hours motionless. The bottle was carefully opened with the release of pressure and the liquid was drawn from the container above the solid in the bottle via syringe. Another 100 mL of fresh muriatic acid was added and the bottle closed and rolled for another 2-hour period followed by a 2-4 hour period of standing in an upright position. The bottle was opened again with release of much less pressure than after the initial acid treatment. The aqueous liquid portion was carefully drawn from the solid as before. The decanted liquid was noticeably clearer than the liquid drawn from the first acid treatment. After thoroughly decanting the aqueous liquid, 100 mL of toluene was added to the solid, the screw-top lid was replaced and the bottle was rolled again for 4-6 hours with the ceramic balls remaining in the container for agitation. After allowing at least 1 hour for settling, the lid was opened with little to no pressure released from the vessel and liquid was drawn away followed by another 100 mL portion of toluene added to the vessel. The vessel was again rolled to agitate the silicon powder in toluene for another 4-6 hours before allowing the mixture to settle and opening the vessel to remove the liquid toluene via syringe. The remaining toluene was removed by evaporation assisted by reduced pressure at room temperature.

Following a similar procedure, other hydrocarbon passivated micron- to nanosized particles can be created using n-type Group IVA wafers, or wafers with higher or lower resistivity or bulk MG Group IVA ingot material. The amounts of material treated can vary depending on the grade of the bulk material and size and burst strength of polypropylene or polyethylene container used.

Example 2 Benzene Passivated Silicon Particles

In another example, following the identical milling procedure describe of Example 1, benzene (C₆H₆) was instead used as the passivating hydrocarbon in place of toluene. Applied similarly, benzene may be replaced in subsequent reactions by other hydrocarbons with more strongly bonding functional groups. Benzene is one of few organic hydrocarbons that will bond reversibly to silicon surfaces. Thus, benzene passivated Group IVA material is a convenient stable intermediate to use for introducing other functional hydrocarbons on to the particle surface. This is one of few forms of Group IVA material in which thermodynamics plays an important role in the surface chemistry as opposed to be being dominated by kinetics.

It is understood that the foregoing detailed description and accompanying examples are merely illustrative and are not to be taken as limitations upon the scope of the invention, which is defined solely by the appended claims and their equivalents.

Various changes and modifications to the disclosed embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications, including without limitation those relating to the chemical structures, substituents, derivatives, intermediates, syntheses, compositions, formulations, or methods of use of the invention, may be made without departing from the spirit and scope thereof. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A Group IVA particle passivated by a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.
 2. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the non-dielectric layer is derived from a compound selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes.
 3. The Group IVA particle of claim 1, wherein the non-dielectric layer is derived from a compound selected from the group consisting toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary alkene, a primary alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene, and terephthalaldehyde.
 4. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the non-dielectric layer possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.
 5. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the Group IVA particle is stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.
 6. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the particle is 25 microns in size or less.
 7. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-6, wherein the particle is 1 micron in size or less.
 8. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the particle is 0.1 micron in size or less.
 9. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the particle is 0.05 micron in size or less.
 10. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the particle is covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework.
 11. The Group IVA particle of claim 10, wherein the porous covalent framework is a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework.
 12. The Group IVA particle of claim 10 or claim 11, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 2-dimensional framework.
 13. The Group IVA particle of claim 10 or claim 11, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 3-dimensional framework.
 14. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-13, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises silicon.
 15. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-14, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises germanium.
 16. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-15, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises tin.
 17. The Group IVA particle of any one of claim 1-16, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises an n-type dopant.
 18. The Group IVA particle of claim 17, wherein the n-type dopant comprises nitrogen, phosphorous, or arsenic.
 19. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-16, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises a p-type dopant.
 20. The Group IVA particle of claim 19, wherein the p-type dopant comprises boron or aluminum.
 21. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-20, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises an impurity selected from the group consisting of aluminum, iron, calcium, and titanium.
 22. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-21, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from metallurgical grade silicon.
 23. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-22, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from a p-type silicon wafer.
 24. The Group IVA particle of claim 23, wherein the p-type silicon wafer has a measured resistivity of 0.01-100 ohm/cm².
 25. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-22, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from an n-type silicon wafer.
 26. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-25, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from bulk MG Group IVA ingot material.
 27. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-26, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of an anode in a lithium ion battery.
 28. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-26, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of a photovoltaic (PV) film.
 29. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-26, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of a biosensor.
 30. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-26, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of an energy storage device.
 31. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-26, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of a thermoelectric film.
 32. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-26, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of a semiconductor device.
 33. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-32, prepared by a process comprising the steps of: a) treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and b) treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a Group IVA particle passivated with a non-dielectric layer over at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.
 34. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 1-32, prepared by a process comprising the steps of: a) treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; b) treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and c) treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.
 35. The Group IVA particle of claim 33 or claim 34, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of an organic compound, a fullerene, and an organometallic compound.
 36. The Group IVA particle of any one of claims 33-35, wherein the Group IVA particle possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.
 37. A method of functionalizing a Group IVA particle, the method comprising: a) treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; and b) treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle, said particle passivated with a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the Group IVA particle.
 38. A method of functionalizing a Group IVA particle, the method comprising: a) treating a Group IVA particle with a protic acid to provide a hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle; b) treating the hydrogen passivated Group IVA particle with benzene to yield a benzene passivated Group IVA particle; and c) treating the benzene passivated Group IVA particle with a compound to provide a passivated Group IVA particle stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.
 39. The method of claim 37 or claim 38, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkenes, alcohols, glycols, thiols, disulfides, amines, amides, pyridines, pyrrols, furans, thiophenes, cyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, ketones, carboxylic acids, amino acids, and aldehydes.
 40. The method of claim 37 or claim 38, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting toluene, benzene, a polycyclic aromatic, a fullerene, a metallofullerene, a styrene, a cyclooctatetraene, a norbornadiene, a primary alkene, a primary alkyne, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, a peptide, a protein, an enzyme, 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyanthracene, and terephthalaldehyde.
 41. The method of any one of claims 37-40, wherein the passivated Group IVA particle possesses functional groups capable of forming covalent bonds to other reagents.
 42. The method of claim 37, wherein the passivated Group IVA particle is stable to oxidation in air at room temperature.
 43. The method of claim 38, wherein the passivated Group IVA particle comprises a non-dielectric layer covering at least a portion of a surface of the said Group IVA particle.
 44. The method of any one of claims 37-43, wherein the particle is 25 microns in size or less.
 45. The method of any one of claims 37-44, wherein the particle is 1 micron in size or less.
 46. The method of any one of claims 37-45, wherein the particle is 0.1 micron in size or less.
 47. The method of any one of claims 37-46, wherein the particle is 0.05 micron in size or less.
 48. The method of any one of claims 37-47, wherein the particle is covalently bonded to a porous covalent framework.
 49. The method of any one of claim 48, wherein the porous covalent framework is a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework.
 50. The method of claim 48 or claim 49, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 2-dimensional framework.
 51. The method of claim 48 or claim 49, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 3-dimensional framework.
 52. The method of any one of claims 37-51, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises silicon.
 53. The method of any one of claims 37-52, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises germanium.
 54. The method of any one of claims 37-53, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises tin.
 55. The method of any one of claim 37-54, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises an n-type dopant.
 56. The method of claim 55 wherein the n-type dopant comprises nitrogen, phosphorous, or arsenic.
 57. The method of any one of claims 37-54, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises a p-type dopant.
 58. The method of claim 57, wherein the p-type dopant comprises boron or aluminum.
 59. The method of any one of claims 37-58, wherein the Group IVA particle comprises an impurity selected from the group consisting of aluminum, iron, calcium, and titanium.
 60. The method of any one of claims 37-59, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of an anode in a lithium ion battery.
 61. The method of any one of claims 37-59, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of a photovoltaic film.
 62. The method of any one of claims 37-59, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of a biosensor.
 63. The method of any one of claims 37-59, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of an energy storage device.
 64. The method of any one of claims 37-59, wherein the Group IVA particle is part of a thermoelectric film.
 65. The method of any one of claims 37-64, wherein the protic acid is selected from the group consisting of nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and hydrobromic acid.
 66. The method of any one of claims 37-65, wherein the steps are conducted at about room temperature.
 67. The method of any one of claims 37-66, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from metallurgical grade silicon.
 68. The method of any one of claim 37-67, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from a p-type silicon ingot or wafer.
 69. The method of claim 68, wherein the p-type silicon wafer has a measured resistivity of 0.01-100 ohm/cm².
 70. The method of any one of claims 37-67, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from a n-type silicon wafer.
 71. The method of any one of claims 37-67, wherein the Group IVA particle is derived from bulk MG Group IVA ingot material.
 72. The method of any one of claims 37-71, wherein prior to treating the Group IVA particle with protic acid, the method comprises crushing, grinding, and milling an ingot or wafer material comprising a Group IVA element to provide submicron Group IVA particles ready for passivation.
 73. The method of any one of claims 37-72, wherein the method of preparing the Group IVA particle is a non-clean room process.
 74. A lithium ion battery comprising a positive electrode; a negative electrode comprising a conductive, porous covalent framework comprising at least one submicron Group IVA particle covalently bonded to the framework; a lithium ion permeable separator between the positive electrode and the negative electrode; and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions.
 75. The lithium ion battery of claim 74, wherein the porous covalent framework is a covalent organic framework, a metal organic framework, or a zeolitic imidazolate framework.
 76. The lithium ion battery of claim 74 or claim 75, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 2-dimensional framework.
 77. The lithium ion battery of claim 74 or claim 75, wherein the porous covalent framework is a 3-dimensional framework.
 78. The lithium ion battery of any one of claims 74-77, further comprising a solvent that is a mixture of at least ethylene and propylene carbonates. 